10 Jembatan Terpanjang Indonesia

10. The Kutai Kartanegara Bridge (580 m)

Kutai Kartanegara Bridge is the means of liaison between Tenggarong Seberang, Tenggarong, Kutai Kartanegara. The length of the bridge is 580 Meters. The bridge was built to resemble the Golden Gate Bridge located in San Francisco.

9. The Kahayan Bridge (640 meter)

Construction of The Kahayan Bridge is finish in 2001, Length of Bridge Approximate 640 meter, width 9 meter, to built with Australia steel construction,The length curve is red colored and bridge to connecting several district in Central Kalimantan, among others Regency of South Barito and to Regency of North Barito. And official appointment by, The President RI, Mrs. Megawati Soekarno Putri, on January 18, 2001.

8. The Barelang Bridges (642 meter) - (The Tengku Fisabillilah Bridge)

The Tengku Fisabilillah bridge connects Batam and Tonton island. It stretches for 642 meters and is the most popular bridge of all, being a cable-stayed bridge with two 199 m high pylons and main span 350 m

7. Rumpiang Bridge (753 meter)

Rumpiang is a small village in the Barito riverside. But, now Rumpiang is also a name for big size bridge with 753 m length accross the Barito river. The bridge constructed to shortcut an access from Banjarmasin to Muarabahan. Before this, people have to accross the river by using a ferry service.
6. Mahulu Bridge (789 meter)

Mahakam Ulu (Mahulu) which bridge under construction crossing Mahakam river. This river is used for coal transport way. This bridge is one of five bridges which crossing the Mahakam river and they are Martadipura, Kartanegara, Mahulu, Mahkota I, and Mahkota II. The bridge length is 789 m with main channel is 200 m.


5. Barito Bridge (1082 meter)

Barito Bridge is a bridge which divides the Barito River in Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan, Indonesia. This bridge has a length of 1082 meters across the Barito River 800 yards wide and the small island (Pulau Bakut) 200 meters wide. The bridge consists of the main bridge 902 meters long, and the bridge approach 180 meters, 10.37 meters wide. Height of free space the main bridge 15 to 18 meters, so that could be used for water traffic.

4. Ampera Bridge (1117 m)

The bridge that spread above Musi River is becomes the main characteristic of Palembang city. It was built on 1962 - 1965. Ampera Bridge has 1117 meter of length and 78m high of tower. However, the special feature of this bridge that it can be opened and closed, the mechanism is no longer working, whereas is fact, it is the only bridge in Indonesia with the open-and-closed mechanism. Now it is only history. The bridge has to be lifted up of the middle shares each time there every king sized ship, with height above nine meters, will pass by quickly. Both for going to downstream and also which going to the upstream.


3. The Tengku Agung Sultanah Latifah Bridge (1196 meter)

The Tengku Agung Sultanah Latifah Bridge located in the capital city of Riau Province, Siak Regency is a beautiful stretch he's the Siak river. "Males River" is the nickname of this river in the past. Bridge is designed to age more than 100 years has been built through a system of cable stayed, with modern construction. Siak Bridge or The Tengku Agung Sutanah Latifah Bridge is designed since 2001 by a team of experts from the ITB. 1196 meters long, 16.95 meters wide sidewalk flanking the right side and left the bridge. The bridge height reached 23 meters in the Siak River water level reaches a whidth of about 300 meters. On the bridge stood two tall towers each 80 meters equipped with two elevators to get to the top of the tower. Fore these two towers would be the "point value" in tourism sector due to the location of the cafe will be built so that visitors can enjoy Siak panoramic beauty of the crossed by a winding river like a dragon.


2. The Pasupati Bridge (2147 meter)

As Bandung's newest icon, Pasupati cable stayed bridge (2147 meters, 21.53 meter wide) is probably quite well known among those who know this city. The stories behind it, however, may not be as familiar to those who live outside Bandung.

1. The Suramadu Bridge (5438 meter)

The Suramadu Bridge, also known as the Surabaya–Madura Bridge, is a bridge with three cable-stayed sections constructed between Surabaya on the island of Java and the town of Bangkalan on the island of Madura in Indonesia.Opened on June 10, 2009. The 5438 meters bridge is the longest in Indonesia and the first bridge to cross the Madura Strait.

Source:
http://www.shevceba.co.cc/
http://dailyphotoku.blogspot.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/
http://www.indonesia-tourism.com/
http://indahnesia.com/
http://bandungdailyphoto.com/
http://www.skyscrapercity.com/

pictured by:
flickr.com
eastjava.com
http://mediaranahjaya.blogspot.com/

The Big Holes in Indonesia

1. Mining holes Batu Hijau in Sumbawa

Batu Hijau mine is an open pit mine which is a copper and gold mine. These mines operated by Newmont Mining Corporation subsidiary PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara (PT Newmont). This mine is located 1530 kilometers (950 miles) east of the capital Jakarta, Indonesia in Sumbawa, in the District Taliwang south, an island in West Nusa Tenggara. Mine is the result of ten years of exploration and development programs are based on the discovery of porphyry copper deposit in 1999. Production began in 2000.

2. Mining holes Grasberg in Papua
Grasberg mine is the largest gold mine and third largest copper mine in the world. Located in Indonesia's Papua province near the Puncak Jaya, the highest mountain in Papua, and has 19 500 employees. It is majority owned by a subsidiary of Freeport-McMoRan, based in the United States (67.3%), together with its subsidiary, PT Indocopper Investment Corporation (9.3%), and Indonesia (9.3%) ; and revenue sharing joint venture with Rio Tinto Group (13%). The cost to build the mine on the mountain of U.S. $ 3 billion. In the year 2006, an estimated 2.8 billion tons of reserves valued at 1.09% copper, 0.98 grams / ton gold and 3.87 grams / tonne silver. Production in 2006 was 610 800 tons of copper; 58,474,392 grams of gold, and 174 458 971 grams of silver.

source:
http://mediaranahjaya.blogspot.com/
http://kaskus.us
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://googleearthplaces.com

5 plane crash in Indonesia, with most casualties

5. Casualties killed 104 people.

December 19, 1997. SilkAir Flight 185 was a routine commercial flight service airline SilkAir from Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, Jakarta, Indonesia to Changi Airport, Singapore. On December 19, 1997, at around 16:13 pm, Boeing 737-300 aircraft serving these routes have an accident crashed in the Musi River, Palembang, South Sumatra. All of the 104 people who were in it (97 passengers and 7 crew members) were killed, including pilot Tsu Way Ming and co-pilot Duncan Ward. Among those killed in the crash was Singaporean model and author Bonny Hicks.

4. Casualties killed 107 people.

Pan Am Flight 812, a Boeing 707-321B, was a scheduled international flight from Hong Kong to Sydney, Australia with an intermediate stop at Denpasar, Bali. On April 22, 1974 it crashed into a rough mountainous terrain while preparing for a runway 09 approach to Denpasar after a 4 hour 20 minutes flight from Hong Kong. Location of the accident is about 42.5 nautical miles North-West of Ngurah Rai Airport.

Examination on the disposition of the wreckage and inspection of the site indicated that no structural failure of the aircraft occurred before impact. It was determined that the premature execution of a right-hand turn to join the 263 degrees outbound track, which was based on the indication given by only one of the ADFs while the other one was still in steady condition is the most probable cause of the accident.

3. Casualties killed 143 people.

5 September 2005. Indonesia Mandala Airlines Flight 091 was a Boeing 737-200 owned by Mandala Airlines crashed in the area Padang Bulan, Medan,Indonesia on 5 September 2005. This accident happened as the plane was taking off from Polonia Airport, Medan. The plane was flying majoring in Jakarta and Medan to transport 116 people (111 passengers and 5 crew). Previously reported that the plane carrying 117 people but a passenger plane. Passengers who survived were 17 men and 44 people on the ground also become korban.Pada October 12, 2006, NTSC stated that based on the results of the investigation, Flight 91 fell due to the condition of the flap and slat (adder tool lift the aircraft during take-off) that does not go down as well as procedures check list of equipment that does not fit the requirements.

2. Casualties killed 191 people.

December 4, 1974. Martin Air aircraft leased to Garuda Indonesian hajj flight crashed while landing at the airport will Colombo, Sri Lanka, and caused 191 deaths.

1. Casualties killed 235 people.

26 September 1997. Garuda Indonesia flight GA 152 was an Airbus A300-B4 aircraft that crashed in the village of Fruit Nabar, Sibolangit district, Deli Serdang regency, North Sumatra, Indonesia (about 32 km from the airport and 45 km from the city of Medan) is now about to land at Polonia Airport, Medan on 26 September 1997. This accident killed all 222 people on board are numbered and 12 crew and up to now is the biggest plane crash in Indonesia's history.

The plane was en route from Jakarta to Medan and have been preparing for landing. Polonia Airport control tower lost contact with the plane at around 13:30 pm. When the occurrence of these events, the city of Medan was thick smoke from the fires blanketed the forest. The thickness of the smoke causes the pilot was very limited range of view and just rely on guidance from the control tower Polonia, but kesalahmengertian communication between the control tower to the pilots caused the aircraft taking the wrong direction and crashed into a mountain cliff.

From all the people killed, there are 44 dead victims could be identified which was subsequently buried at Monument Membramo, Medan. Among the casualties, other than citizens of Indonesia, also carrying passengers to U.S. citizenship, the Netherlands and Japan.

Bonus: The Missing Plane

1. January 1, 2007.

Adam Air Flight KI-574 was a scheduled domestic airline Adam Air is majoring inSurabaya-Manado, which prior to transit in Surabaya from Jakarta, is lost in flight. The black box was found at a depth of 2000 meters on August 28, 2007. All the passengers and crew numbering 102 missing and presumed dead. On March 25, 2008, the cause of the accident as announced by the National Transportation Safety Committee (NTSC) is bad weather, damage to navigational aids inertial Reference System (IRS), and failure of pilot performance in dealing with emergency situations.

2. January 31, 1993.

SC-7 aircraft of Pan Malaysian Air Transport Skyvan registered 9M-PID lost 35 minutes after taking off from Polonia. The aircraft with 11 passengers and 3 crew members crashed in the forest area of East Aceh, no one has found its ruins.

source:

http://dephub.go.id/knkt/ntsc_home/ntsc.htm

http://adiewicaksono.wordpress.com

http://angkasa-online.com

http://en.wikipedia.org

http://mediaranahjaya.blogspot.com/

Indonesian village snacks on soil for better health

In Indonesia, soil is not just a raw material for bricks and ceramics, it's also a snack that one family has been making for generations.

Tuban, in East Java Province, is the only village that produces "ampo," a snack made from clean, gravel-free dark earth collected from nearby paddy fields.
Although there is no medical evidence, villagers believe the soil snacks are an effective pain-killer and pregnant women are encouraged to eat them as it is believed to refine the skin of the unborn baby.
There is no real recipe: makers of the snack use a wooden stick to pound the soil into a hard, solid mass.
Rolls of dirt are then scraped off the with a bamboo dagger, baked and smoked in large clay pot for half and hour and then they're ready to serve.
The better the quality of the soil, the better the taste of the snack, its creator, fifty-three year-old Rasima, says.
Rasima, who like many Indonesians only has one name, makes ampo everyday to sell at the local market, just like her ancestors.
She is the village's only ampo producer, and can earn up to $2 a day to supplement her family's income from farming.
"The ampo-making has become a family tradition in the village and I do not know exactly when it started," she said.
"All I know is that it was made by my great-grandmother and it was continued by my grandmother then my mother and now I continue to make it."
Rasima says her knack for finding good soil comes from her job as a field worker.
"I work in the paddy fields of others, looking for banana and teak leaves, so my job is always in touch with nature," she says.
Fans say the soil snacks have a cool, creamy texture.
"I think the taste is nice and I usually eat this. It is nothing special, it feels cold in my stomach," said Siti Qomariyah, who has been eating the snacks since she was a child.
In Tuban, a village in the East Java province of Indonesia, earth is used to make “ampo” a creamy snack believed to have medicinal properties.
According to Rasima, the ampo cook of Tuban, there is no real recipe to making this bizarre snack. All she does is look for clean, gravel-free soil, in the village’s rice paddies, pound it into a solid block, using a stick, and scrape rolls out of it,with a bamboo dagger. The rolls of soils are then baked and smoked for an hour. Rasima then takes the earthy snacks to the village market, where she earns about $2, to supplement her family’s income.
Tuban is the only earth-eating village on the planet. There are people, around the world, who enjoy eating sand, or kaolin, but not baked soil. Villagers believe ampo is a natural pain-killer, and that it makes babies’ skin softer, if eaten by their pregnant mothers.
As for the taste of ampo, “it’s nothing special, it feels cold in my stomach” says one of the Tuban locals, who has been eating ampo, ever since she was a child.
source:
http://reuters.com
http://odditycentral.com
http://unp.co.in
http://trickfist.com
http://ubervu.com
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://mediaranahjaya.blogspot.com/

Java Treasure Trove – Indonesia

The treasure trove is the most recently found. The find contains close to 14,000 pearls, 4,000 rubies, 400 dark red sapphires, and more than 2,200 garnets. They were found on a ship that sunk off the shores of Indonesia more than 1,000 years ago. In addition to jewelry, the treasure hunters found tiny perfume flasks, jars made of baked clay, slender-necked vases, and brightly coloured glassware from the Fatimides dynasty that once ruled ancient Egypt. They also found dishes adorned with dragons, parakeets and other birds; porcelain with finely-carved edges; teapots decorated with lotus flowers; and celadon plates with their glaze intact. The find is valued at several million dollars; 50% of which will go to the government of Indonesia. 10th Century wrecks are extremely rare and this find fills a large gap in our knowledge of that period.

source:
http://listverse.com
http://mediaranahjaya.blogspot.com/

4 Patung Tertinggi di Indonesia

4. Avalokitesvara Boddhisatva Statue (22.8 m)
If you’re traveling to Siantar or on an excursion to Lake Toba in Prapat, have a stop off at Vihara Avalokitesvara in Pane street, Siantar. Help yourself to pray (for Buddhist) or admire the statue of Kwan Im (Quan Yin) that is recorded by MURI (Indonesia’s Record Museum) as the biggest Avalokitesvara Bodhissatva Statue in Indonesia.Kwan Im statue in Siantar was built in 3 years and made public on 15th November 2005. The 22.8 meters granite statue was ordered from China as the heighest statue in South East Asia.
For Buddhist, Kwan Im is regarded as the Goddess of Mercy and known as Bodhisattva or Buddha-To-Be, human being that is almost reaching enlightment and perfection. The position of Kwan Im in Siantar is called “The Sutra Holder Quan Yin” out of 33 other positions.
Kwan Im is also called Avalokitesvara, identical to the Vihara in which the statue is in. Aval means “hear” and lokite means “world” and svara means “voice” which summarizes “Hearing voices of the world”. “Avalokitesvara, as buddhists believed, is compassion. And those who suffer will be heard”, said Monk Dhyanavira of Vihara Avalokitesvara.
The statue is surrounded by “Catur Mahadewa Raja” (guardians of hell, who’s noting merits/misdeeds done by mortals). The site is also featured with a giant bell and a praying wheel. At the lower part of the site, 33 small Kwan Im statues are circling the big statue.
The Kwan Im statues is now one of religious sites to visit in Siantar, visited by many tourists as well as pilgrims especially on holiday and holy day of Buddhist.

3. Garuda Wisnu Kencana Statue (23 m)
Mandala Garuda Wisnu Kencana, or Garuda Wisnu Kencana (GWK) is a private cultural park on the Bukit Peninsula at the southern end of the island of Bali inIndonesia. Bukit is a limestone plateau with Uluwatu to the west and Nusa Dua to the eastern.
It is devoted to the Hindu god Vishnu, and his mount, Garuda, the mythical bird who is his companion.Currently, the statue of Vishnu is 23 m high, although the original plan was for a 146 meter gold plated Vishnu riding Garuda on top of an 11 storey entertainment complex. The idea was not without controversy, and religious authorities on the island complained that its massive size might disrupt the spiritual balance of the island, and that its commercial nature was inappropriate.

2. Christ Blessing Statue (30 m)
Christ Blessing (in Manado language is Kristus kase Berkat) is a statue of Jesus Christ in Manado City, Indonesia. The statue stands 50 metres (158.3 feet) tall and consists of 20 metres of pedestal and 30 metres of statue. It is made of 25 tonnes of metal fibre and 35 tonnes of steel, and is located at the peak of the CitraLand residential estate. This statue has become a new icon of Manado city and unveils one of Asia's tallest Jesus Christ statues.The idea came from Ir. Ciputra, an Indonesian real estate developer, when he and his wife stood on the place where the statue now. The statue is build for Manado and North Sulawesi society and to worship God. The construction took nearly 3 years by Yogjakarta Engineer. The cost of the monument was five billion rupiah (about 540,000 dollars).
This statue has a declivity 20 degree and is made from fiber and steel and became the "first flying tallest statue in the world".

1. Jalesveva Jayamahe Statue (30.6 m)
Monument of Jalesveva Jayamahe (Monjaya) is great evidence and very amaze suborder masterpiece. An endowment of high history value, as the reflection of the highness of Indonesian nation as the maritime nation one. The other meaning of this statue figure is as the readiness symbol to receive the devotion from generation to the next generation.This monument is a statue as high as 30,6 meters, which sustained by a building as high as 30 meters. This statue depict a Commandant of IndonesianMaritime Army complete with his honor sword upstanding to stare towards the sea fully confidence and seriousness ready to dash against the wave and go through storm, which have shown, that is the aspiration of Indonesian nation.
Monument of Jalesveva Jayamahe taken away from TNI AL motto that means, "In the sea we are glorious" its height is 60 meters. The building consisted of concrete building domed four floors 30 meters that taken as copper statue fulcrums as high as 30 meters. At part of this building wall is made the history of maritime combatants warrior diorama (TNI AL) since revolution physical era until 90-an year.

source:
http://indonesiatop.blogspot.com
http://eastjava.com
http://kamaruddin.jajanmedan.com
http://id.wikipedia.org
http://mediaranahjaya.blogspot.com/  

Indonesian Floral Emblem

Lambang Bunga Nasional Indonesia

Bunga Melati (Jasminum sambac)
Jasminum sambac (syn. Nyctanthes sambac) is a species of jasmine native to southwestern and southern Asia, in the Philippines, India, Myanmar and Sri Lanka.
Common names include Arabian Jasmine, Full (فل) (Arabic), Bel/Beli (Bengali), Mogra (Hindi and Marathi), Mallikā (Sanskrit), Kampupot, Melati (Malay andIndonesian Language), Sampaguita (Filipino), Mallepuvvu (Telugu), Mallikaipu (Tamil), dundu Mallige (Kannada) and Kaliyan (Urdu). The botanic name sambac is derived from a misapplication of the Sanskrit name champaka, which refers to the fragrant flowered shrub Michelia champaca.It is an evergreen vine or shrub reaching up to 1-3 m tall. The leaves are opposite or in whorls of three, simple (not pinnate, like most other jasmines), ovate, 4-12.5 cm long and 2-7.5 cm broad. The flowers are produced in clusters of 3-12 together, strongly scented, with a white corolla 2-3 cm diameter with 5-9 lobes. The flowers open at night, and close in the morning. The fruit is a purple-black berry 1 cm in diameter.
flower is known as sampaguita and was adopted by the government as its national flower in 1937. Filipinos string the flowers into leis, corsages and crowns and distill its oils and sell them in stores, streets, and outside churches. The garlands may be used to welcome guests, or as an offering or adornment in religious altars. Its oil is believed to be a cure for headache.
In Cambodia, the flower is used as an offering to the Buddha. Since 96.5% of Cambodians are Buddhists, it is widely known throughout the country. The season of the flower begins in June, the month that provides the most rain. During this month, many civilians thread the flower buds onto a wooden needle to be presented to the Buddha.
In Bengali, the flower is known as beli and is extremely popular for its sweet fragrance. It is used to make garlands to adorn women's hair. And in South India, too, they are strung into thick strands and worn as a hair adornment. In Hawaii, the flower is known as pikake, and is used to make fragrant leis.
In China, the flower is processed and used as the main ingredient in jasmine tea.


Bunga Anggrek Bulan (Moon Orchid)
Phalaenopsis amabilis, commonly known as the Moon Orchid, is a species of orchid.
It was first discovered on a small island off the east coast of New Guinea by native botanist Georgius Everhardus Rumphius in 1653; however, he named itAngraecum ablum majus. It remained undiscovered until 1825 when Karl Ludwig Blume discovered the same species and gave it the name it is known by presently. This species is usually found in the eastern to southeastern regions of Asia. Plants in this genus are typically widespread in the areas of eastern Asia, such as China and Indonesia. This particular species wide-ranges from Indonesia to Australia. In fact, this species is one of Indonesia's national flowers (along with Jasminum sambac and Rafflesia arnoldii).Plants of this genus have a uniform structure that makes the identification easy for novice botanists. Phalaenopsis amabilis, like most of the other species in this genus, has a short stem. This is believed to be an adaptation to gain the light requirements needed to grow, according to Christenson. The rooting of P. amabilis is usually unbranched. The only times it would be branched are if the roots are damaged or if the individual has gotten old in age. The leaves ofP. amabilis vary from oblong to elliptic at the base and obtuse, minutely, at the tip or apex and measures at 50 × 10 cm. The moon orchid's flower is showy, membranous, white, the lip, (the unpared petals of an orchid) which is three-lobed, and the callus are a variety of yellow and red depending on the individual plant. It is able to bloom for a long period of time and can grow up to 10 cm in diameter and more.
Phalaenopsis amabilis reproduces sexually through pollination. This plant grows its flower to attract the pollinator. It is generally pollinated by large carpenter bees from the genus Xylcopa. For this particular species in the Phalaenopsis genus the pollination frequency and success rate is high (about 50%).
P. amabilis and the other species in the same genus grow naturally in three distinct habitats. The first is in seasonally dry areas, then seasonally cool areas and last constantly moist or humid areas (Christenson), developing adaptions for each habitat. For the seasonally dry habitats, Phalaenopsis species have an extreme adaptation in which it adopts deciduous habits, losing its leaves. They do this because in dry habitats, leaves are a serious liability when water isn't easily accessible. This adaptation typically occurs in species found outside the Himalayan region. For the habitats that are seasonally cool areas, the species found there are all deciduous or semi-deciduous in nature which means these plant have a strong dormant rest period. In this dormant period, the plants have protection from the cold due to the high carbon to nitrogen ratio and low water content on the leaf tissue. The constantly moist and humid habitats are the most common places that someone can find many of the Phalaenopsis species. In this habitat, the species grow in the canopy evergreen forests. Because they grow in the canopy, the species' adaptation is growing leathery leaves to prevent desiccation and so that the plants can tolerate higher light levels than other species.
According to Dressler, the plants of this family are thought to be closely related to plants that would have been classified in the Liliaceae or the Amaryllidaceae families.


Bunga Bangkai (Rafflesia arnoldii)
Rafflesia arnoldii is a member of the genus Rafflesia. It is noted for producing the largest individual flower on earth, and a strong odor of decaying flesh - the latter point earning it the nickname of "corpse flower". It occurs only in the rainforests of Sumatra and Borneo in the Indonesian Archipelago. Although there are some plants with larger flowering organs like the Titan Arum and Talipot palm, those are technically clusters of many flowers.
Several species of Rafflesia grow in the jungles of southeast Asia, including the Philippines. Many of them are threatened or endangered. The flower ofRafflesia arnoldii is the largest which attains a diameter of around one meter (3 ft) and can weigh up to 11 kilograms (24 lb). The largest recorded flower was measured at 1.04 metres on February 11, 2010, in Malaysia on the edge of the Cameron Highlands.It lives as a parasite on the Tetrastigma vine, which grows only in primary (undisturbed) rainforests. Rafflesia lacks any observable leaves, stems or even roots, yet is still considered a vascular plant. Similar to fungi, individuals grow as thread-like strands of tissue completely embedded within and in intimate contact with surrounding host cells from which nutrients and water are obtained. Perhaps the only part of Rafflesia that is identifiable as distinctly plant-like are the flowers; although, even these are unusual since they attain massive proportions, have a reddish-brown coloration and stink of rotting flesh, which is why it was nicknamed the "corpse flower". This scent attracts insects such as flies which then pollinate the rare plant. It is not to be confused with the Titan Arum, Amorphophallus titanum, which is also commonly referred to as the "corpse flower".

source:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/
http://www.plantlife.org.uk/
http://national-flowers.info/
http://www.theflowerexpert.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/
http://wiyono4.blogspot.com/
http://mediaranahjaya.blogspot.com/

The Super Volcanoes in Indonesia

VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index)

The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) was devised by Chris Newhall 

of the U.S. Geological Survey and Steve Self at the University of

 Hawai?i in 1982 to provide a relative measure of the explosiveness 

of volcanic eruptions.

Volume of products, eruption cloud height, and qualitative observations

 (using terms ranging from "gentle" to "mega-colossal") are used to determine

 the explosivity value. The scale is open-ended with the largest volcanoes 

in history given magnitude 8. A value of 0 is given for non-explosive 

eruptions (less than 104 cubic metres of tephra ejected) with 8

 representing a mega-colossal explosive eruption that can eject 1012 

cubic metres of tephra and have a cloud column height of over 25 km (16 mi). 

Each interval on the scale represents a tenfold increase in observed eruption criteria.

Note that ash, volcanic bombs, and ignimbrite are all treated alike —

 this is due to taking into account the vesicularity (gas bubbling) of the 

volcanic products in question and the DRE (Dense-Rock Equivalent) is calculated

 to give the actual amount of magma erupted. One weakness of the VEI is

 that it does not take into account the magnitude of power output of an eruption. 

This, of course, is extremely difficult to detect with prehistoric or unobserved eruptions.

6. 1982 Eruption of Galunggung, (VEI 4)

Mount Galunggung (Indonesian: Gunung Galunggung, 

formerly spelled Galoen-gong) is an active stratovolcano in West Java, Indonesia.

The last major eruption on Galunggung was in 1982, which had a Volcanic 

Explosivity Index of 4 and killed 68 people. This eruption also brought

the dangers of volcanic ash to aviation to worldwide attention, after two Boeing 

747 passenger jets flying downwind of the eruption suffered temporary 

engine failures and damage to exterior surfaces, both planes being forced

 to make emergency landings at Jakarta.



one, a British Airways aircraft carrying 240 passengers, accidentally entered the

 ash cloud during night time in June 1982 150 km downwind of the volcano. 

All four engines failed and the aircraft descended for 16 minutes, losing 7500

metres of its 11500 meter altitude, until the crew managed to restart the engines.

The following month a Singapore Airlines aeroplane with 230 passengers aboard

 also inadvertently entered the cloud at night time, and three of its four engines stopped. 

The crew succeeded in restarting one of the engines after descending 2400 meters. 

Both aircraft suffered serious damage to their engines and exterior surfaces.


5. The 1963-64 Eruption of Mount Agung, (VEI 5)

Mount Agung or Gunung Agung is a mountain in Bali, Indonesia. 

This stratovolcano is the highest point on the island. It dominates the 

surrounding area influencing the climate. The clouds come from the west and 

Agung takes their water so that the west is lush and green and the east dry and barren.

The Balinese believe that Mount Agung is a replica of Mount Meru,

 the central axis of the universe. One legend holds that the mountain is a 

fragment of Meru brought to Bali by the first Hindus. The most important 

temple on Bali, Pura Besakih, is located high on the slopes of Gunung Agung.

Gunung Agung last erupted in 1963-64 and is still active, with a large and very 

deep crater which occasionally belches smoke and ash. From a distance, 

the mountain appears to be perfectly conical, despite the existence of the large crater.

From the peak of the mountain, it is possible to see the peak of 

Mount Rinjani on the island of Lombok, although both mountains are frequently 

covered in clouds.On February 18, 1963, local residents heard loud explosions 

and saw clouds rising from the crater of Mount Agung. On February 24, 

lava began flowing down the northern slope of the mountain, eventually traveling 

7 km in the next 20 days. On March 17, the volcano erupted, sending 

debris 8–10 km into the air and generating massive pyroclastic flows. These flows 

devastated numerous villages, killing approximately 1500 people. 

Cold lahars caused by heavy rainfall after the eruption killed an additional 200. 

A second eruption on May 16 led to pyroclastic flows which killed 

another 200 inhabitants.The lava flows missed, sometimes by mere yards,

 the Mother Temple of Besakih. The saving of the temple is regarded

 by the Balinese people as miraculous and a signal from the gods 

that they wished to demonstrate their power but not destroy the 

monument the Balinese faithful had erected.


4. 1883 Eruption of Krakatoa, (VEI 6)

Krakatoa (Indonesian: Krakatau), also spelled Cracatoa or Krakatau,

 is a volcanic island made of a'a lava in the Sunda Strait between

 the islands of Java and Sumatra in Indonesia. The name is used for

 the island group, the main island (also called Rakata), and the volcano as a whole.

The best-known eruption of Krakatua culminated in a series of massive 

explosions on August 26–27, 1883, which was among the

 most violent volcanic events in modern and recorded history.

With a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6, the eruption was 

equivalent to 200 megatons of TNT (840 PJ)—about 13,000 times the

 nuclear yield of the Little Boy bomb (13 to 16 kT) that devastated Hiroshima, 

Japan during World War II and four times the yield of the Tsar Bomba (50 MT), 

the largest nuclear device ever detonated



The 1883 eruption ejected approximately 21 cubic kilometres (5.0 cu mi)

 of rock, ash, and pumice.

The cataclysmic explosion was distinctly heard as far away as Perth in Western

 Australia, about 1,930 miles (3,110 km) away, and the island of Rodrigues

 near Mauritius, about 3,000 miles (5,000 km) away.

Near Krakatau, according to official records, 165 villages and towns were 

destroyed and 132 seriously damaged, at least 36,417 (official toll) people died, 

and many thousands were injured by the eruption, mostly from the tsunamis that

 followed the explosion. The eruption destroyed two-thirds of the island of Krakatoa.

Eruptions at the volcano since 1927 have built a new island in the same location, 

named Anak Krakatau (Indonesian: "Child of Krakatoa"). 

This island currently has a radius of roughly 2 kilometres (1.2 mi)

 and a high point around 300 metres (980 ft) above sea level, growing 5 metres 

(16 ft) each year.

3. Maninjau (280.000 BP), (VEI 7)

Lake Maninjau (Indonesian: Danau Maninjau, meaning overlook or 

observation in Minangkabau) is a caldera lake in West Sumatra, Indonesia. 

It is located 16 km to the west of Bukittinggi, at 0°19'S 100°12'E.

The Maninjau caldera was formed by a volcanic eruption estimated to have

 occurred around 52,000 years ago. Deposits from the eruption have been

 found in a radial distribution around Maninjau extending up to 50 km to

 the east, 75 km to the southeast, and west to the present coastline.

 The deposits are estimated to be distributed over 8500 km² andnhave a

 volume of 220–250 km³. The caldera has a length of 20 km and a width of 8 km.

2. 1815 Eruption of Tambora, (VEI 7)

Mount Tambora (or Tamboro) is an active stratovolcano, also known as

 a composite volcano, on the Sumbawa islands, Indonesia. Sumbawa is flanked 

both to the north and south by oceanic crust, and Tambora was formed by

 the active subduction zones beneath it. This raised Mount Tambora as high as 

4,300 m (14,100 ft), making it one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago,

 and drained off a large magma chamber inside the mountain. It took decades to

 refill the magma chamber, its volcanic activity reaching its peak in April 1816.

Tambora erupted in 1816 with a rating of seven on the Volcanic Explosivity Index,

 making it the largest eruption since the Lake Taupo eruption in about 180 CE. 

The 1815 eruption of Tambora was the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history. 

The explosion was heard on Sumatra island (more than 2,000 km (1,200 mi) away). 

Heavy volcanic ash falls were observed as far away as Borneo, Sulawesi, 

Java and Maluku islands. Most deaths from the eruption were from starvation and

 disease, as the eruptive fallout ruined agricultural productivity in the local region. 

The death toll was at least 71,000 people (the most deadly eruption in recorded history), 

of whom 11,000–12,000 were killed directly by the eruption; the often-cited figure 

of 92,000 people killed is believed to be an overestimate. The eruption created 

global climate anomalies; 1816 became known as the "Year Without a Summer

" because of the effect on North American and European weather. 

Agricultural crops failed and livestock died in much of the Northern Hemisphere,

 resulting in the worst famine of the 19th century.

During an excavation in 2004, a team of archaeologists discovered cultural

 remains buried by the 1815 eruption. They were kept intact beneath 

the 3 m (9.8 ft) deep pyroclastic deposits. At the site, dubbed the Pompeii 

of the East, the artifacts were preserved in the positions they had occupied in 1815.

Using radiocarbon dating technique, it has been established that Mount 

Tambora had erupted three times before the 1815 eruption, but the magnitudes 

of these eruptions are unknown. Their estimated dates are 3910 BC ± 200 years, 

3050 BC and 740 CE ± 150 years. They were all explosive central vent eruptions

 with similar characteristics, except the lattermost eruption had no pyroclastic flows.

In 1812, Mount Tambora became highly active, with its eruptive peak in the 

catastrophic explosive event of April 1815. The magnitude was seven on the 

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) scale, with a total tephra ejecta volume 

of 1.6 × 1011 cubic metres (160 cubic kilometers or 38 cubic miles). 

It was an explosive central vent eruption with pyroclastic flows and a caldera collapse, 

causing tsunamis and extensive land and property damage. It created a long-term 

effect on global climate. This activity ceased on 15 July 1815. Follow-up activity 

was recorded in August 1819 consisting of a small eruption (VEI = 2) with flames

 and rumbling aftershocks, and was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption. 

Around 1880 ± 30 years, Tambora went into eruption again, but only inside the caldera. 

It created small lava flows and lava dome extrusions. This eruption (VEI = 2) 

created the Doro Api Toi parasitic cone inside the caldera.

Mount Tambora is still active. Minor lava domes and flows have been extruded 

on the caldera floor during the 19th and 20th centuries. The last eruption

 was recorded in 1967. However, it was a very small,

 non-explosive eruption (VEI = 0).


1. The Toba Super Eruption, (VEI 8)

The Toba supereruption (Young Toba Tuff or simply YTT) occurred between 

69,000 and 77,000 years ago at Lake Toba (Sumatra, Indonesia), 

and it is recognized as one of Earth's largest known eruptions. 

The related catastrophe theory holds that this supervolcanic event plunged 

the planet into a 6 to 10 year volcanic winter, which resulted in the world's

 human population being reduced to 10,000 or even a mere 1,000 breeding pairs, 

creating a bottleneck in human evolution. Some researchers argue that the 

Toba eruption produced not only a catastrophic volcanic winter but also an 

additional 1,000 year cooling episode.

The Toba event is the most closely studied supereruption. In 1993, 

Michael R. Rampino of the New York University and Stephen Self of the 

University of Hawaii at Manoa first suggested a link between the eruption 

and a bottleneck in human evolution. The theory was then developed in 1998

 by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

The Toba eruption or Toba event occurred at what is now Lake Toba about

 73,500 years (± 3,000 years) or 73,000 (± 4,000 years) ago. The Toba eruption

 was the latest of the three major eruptions which occurred at Toba in the last

 1 million years. The last eruption had an estimated Volcanic Explosivity Index

 of 8 (described as "mega-colossal"), or magnitude = M8; it thus made a sizeable 

contribution to the 100 X 30 km caldera complex. Dense-rock equivalent 

estimated of eruptive volume for the eruption vary between 2,000 km3 and

 3,000 km3, but the most frequently quoted DRE is ~2,800 km3 (7 X 10km18g) 

of erupted magma, of which 800 km3 was deposited as ash fall. It was two

 orders of magnitude greater in erupted mass than the largest volcanic eruption

 in historic times, in 1815 at Mount Tambora in Indonesia, which made 1816

 the "Year Without a Summer" in the northern hemisphere.

Although the eruption took place in Indonesia, it deposited an ash layer approximately

 15 centimetres thick over the entire Indian subcontinent. A blanket of 

volcanic ash was also deposited over the Indian Ocean, and the Arabian

 and South China Sea. Studies, based on deep-sea cores retrieved from

 the South China Sea, recently extended the known distribution of the eruption, and

 suggest that the ~2,800 km3 calculation of the eruption magnitude is a minimum

 value or even an under-estimate.

Source:

http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/

http://www.bbc.co.uk/

http://dsc.discovery.com/

http://volcano.si.edu/

http://geo.mtu.edu/

http://id.wikipedia.org/

http://kaskus.us/

http://www.tobavolcano.googlepages.com/

http://www.articlesextra.com/toba-supervolcano-indonesia.htm

http://mediaranahjaya.blogspot.com/